Overview of the Course

Effective Written Communication Course

This web log was produced for the ICTY Effective Written Communication training course at the UN ICTY in March 2006.

See the archive (left) for posts.

There is a summary of each workshop, from workshop six back to workshop one, and additional posts with tips, articles and links on writing. Each post opens in a new web page.

If you have not taken the course, you might like to scroll down to the bottom of the page and work your way up!

Thanks to all those who took part in this course.

Workshop Six Review: Tone and Tact

The final workshop looked at writing situations which require tact. We read, evaluated and rewrote some tactless writing, and considered how some 'naked' messages could be made more tactful.


In writing, tact is always necessary in formal situations where you do not know the audience very well or you have to communicate unwelcome, controversial or provocative information. Tact is also essential when expressing a grievance, making a complaint or making an accusation. In all these situations you need to get the balance right between communicating necessary information and maintaining good relations.

Three Don'ts about Writing at Work

1. Don't give free rein to emotions in workplace writing, unless you know the audience very well and there is no danger of the text being passed on to others. Watch out especially for anger, frustration, irritation and aggression. Although these emotions may seem to you sometimes justified, they need to be expressed in writing with care. Email can be a problem because it is so informal. Bear in mind that everything you write in a workplace context could be forwarded to someone else.

2. Don't use writing as a stage for conflict. Writing is a poor medium for confrontation. Alternatives like phone calls and face-to-face meetings are usually more effective in lessening the chances of misunderstanding. Sometimes writing is not a good idea. Email is very tempting as a form of daily expression because it is fast and interactive; but it can easily lead to 'message regret' in workplace situations.

3. Don't press 'send' when you are unsure of the context you are writing in. Instead, save a text in draft form, have a break, come back to it later. You will probably revise and edit what you have written, even though you may feel better for having written it. You may delete or modify the vocabulary. You may remove or tone down some of the emphatic words. You may revisit your brief to make sure that you understand the situation correctly.

Getting feedback from a trusted colleague - one who can act as your 'reader' - can make a big difference to how tactful you are in writing. It is also helpful for supervisors to discuss with staff what is required in written communication.

Don't Write!

As email is used for so much communication in the workplace today it is easy to forget that other media - especially the telephone and speech - are sometimes more efficient. A single meeting can sometimes take the place of hundreds of unnecessary emails. Misunderstandings can be dealt with more speedily over the phone than via email and there tend to be fewer supplementary questions. Writing is a powerful medium - but it's not good for everything.

Also, email overload can be a serious source of workplace stress and fatigue. Written texts are part of the memory of an organisation. If there is text overload, the organisational memory also gets overloaded. And that is when important things get forgotten or confused.

For more on this and links to sites on email etiquette, see my earlier post on this web log on 'Email'.

Being Tactful

Some points on tact discussed in the workshop:

* when making any kind of accusation or criticism, avoid 'I......you' sentences.
* always try to put the context or history first before making any difficult request - people are usually more receptive if they understand why they have to do something
* wherever possible, relate the request or comment to organisational policies and goals, not to personal conflict
* avoid starting off with negative phrases ('I did not tell you to do that...')
* avoid starting off with subjective verbs like 'I believe', 'I feel', 'I think' and try to put the facts of the situation first
* if you need to give bad news, try to give a context for this and provide a background explanation. Also, some motivating or positive ending can be effective
* move from negative to positive if making a series of critical points
* recognise the positive contributions made by the other person, don't dwell on the negative
* avoid phrases like 'it would seem that' or 'it appears that' as a basis for judgement
* avoid exclusive phrases like 'as everyone is aware' or 'as you all no doubt know'
* avoid 'must' and 'should' when making requests in favour of 'would' and 'please'
* don't over-use intensifiers like 'absolutely' and 'totally' and avoid using bold or underlining as emphasis
* when making requests to a large group, use the collective term instead of 'you' ('You are reminded..' > 'Staff members are reminded..')

Aren't You Contradicting Yourself?

Yes, in a way. Earlier in the course I suggested that effective, reader-friendly writing is concise and gets to the point. I encouraged removing words rather than adding them. However, tactful situations require special handling. In certain situations sometimes you have to write more, not less, in order to be effective.

The problems in writing come about when every situation is treated the same, and more is always assumed to be better. Tactful writing is about careful phrasing and editing, and not about the number or length of words used.

Workshop Five Review: Proposals

In this workshop we looked at an example of a grant proposal. We discussed different ways of sequencing information in a proposal and looked at various issues regarding editing to meet the demands of a word limit.

Writing Proposals

Proposals are common in workplace writing and many kinds of applications. They do not follow the same pattern as memos. They are more like mini reports. They are usually 1-3 pages in length and are designed to contribute to an ongoing discussion or to suggest change - however small - in an organisation.

In any proposal there must be a balance between information and opinion. Recommendations need to arise out of factual analysis and evaluation. It is usually not enough to say 'We think X should happen because of Y and Z'.

Planning a Proposal

As with previous assignments on this course, I suggested in the workshop that you plan a proposal by breaking it into sections. This gives you a sense of the whole text.

For typical proposals, I recommend that you use a drafting structure of four parts plus a summary:

1. Short summary (one/two sentences) of the whole proposal.

2. Introduction: a concise outline of the situation or the problem, giving its brief history, who is involved, and the organisational context.

3. Analysis of the current situation: a mini-report of what the situation is like now. This often includes summarised data and evidence. Use an appendix or a diagram if you have a lot of statistical information and only mention the headline facts in the text.

4. Evaluation of needs: a description of why change is necessary and/or the possible options. This should emerge from the analysis of the current situation. It may include a comparison of bids for a contract, for example, or a review of a situation which requires change.

5. Recommendations or requests: an outline of the proposal's suggestions for change or requests for action, building on the short summary at the start(1).

Proposals may include additional sections such as 'Discussion' or 'Findings'. Also, as we saw in the workshop, there are different ways of interpreting 'background situation'.

However, by following a rough outline like this you should be able to plan your proposal. It helps to organise your initial thinking in this way and then develop it.

Word Limits

Word limits are a fact of writing life nowadays. When drafting, try to get a balance between the sections of your text depending on your word limit. Make sure, for example, that the introduction is not overloaded with history or background if you only have 300 or 400 words.

If it is overloaded, the evaluation of needs and the action statements will be drowned out. The proposal must give an impression of looking forward, not back. Avoid digressions - bits of information which lead the reader away from the key points of the proposal.

Proposals often succeed - or fail - on the specific examples given in the request section (for example, how grant money will be spent). So two or three well-chosen examples are usually better than a long description of aims.

Extras

If you have a large word limit, consider using an attachment or an appendix to give further in-depth information. Charts and diagrams can also be very effective in communicating information quickly, though usually only in combination with text.

The summary should be used to capture the essence of the whole proposal. It can be put at the beginning and again at the end. Often, only summaries are read when many proposals are being compared.

Headings are useful in any text of more than 500 words. But even if you are not using headings, make sure that each paragraph has a specific function and a small number of keywords that you want the reader to remember.

Summary of Advice on Proposals

* Remove unnecessary information from the summary and first paragraph
* Give a concise but brief account of the history - don't get sidetracked into a long story
* Use an appendix or table if you want to give lots of statistical data
* Select the main facts and arguments which will stand out (three/four is memorable)
* Make sure each paragraph has a clear topic sentence (see handout on 'Paragraphs')
* Break down long sentences into two, or edit out parts to make the main clause clearer
* Use one key word instead of a list of three (eg 'training programmes' is better than 'education, training and career development programmes')
* Use active and dynamic verbs, especially in the final section: 'set up', 'establish', 'launch', 'investigate'.

The Proof is in Reading....

This workshop also included an exercise on proof-reading, always important in the final stages of writing. See here for some proof-reading tips (such as 'read you text backwards'. Yes, it really helps!): http://www.ualr.edu/owl/proofreading.htm

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Grant Proposal Example

An example of a grant proposal from this workshop, written by Orphée Bottse. Thanks to Orphée for sharing this work.

The Landmine Education Trust (LET) is seeking a sum of € 100,000 to support a landmine awareness and education training programme which has recently been introduced in the country of Balanan.

The current situation in the kingdom of Balanan requires urgent action. Landmines cause unnecessary and lasting injuries in the years following a war. It is estimated that nearly half a million unexploded landmines are still on the island of Balanan. Peacekeeping mission UNIBAL began work on clearing unexploded mines in Balanan last year after the end of hostilities but has cleared less than 5% of the unexploded mines on the island.

LET is currently active in landmine education and awareness programmes in Guatemala, Angola, East Timor and Bosnia where recent conflicts have left behind large numbers of unexploded landmines. In order to assist Balanan, LET plans to provide education and awareness programmes to the local population in:

* Identifying areas were mines are still active, including training local community leaders in mine awareness techniques
* Organising local communities to seek alternative farming areas
* Working with UNIBAL in efforts to defuse mines

A LET team has been active in Balanan since January establishing the first training centre. In order to succeed in its mission, LET needs the financial support of the Global Aid Foundation. The grant of € 100,000 will allow LET to finance the above mentioned education and awareness programmes and, thereby, help prevent landmine injuries from occurring.

Affect or Effect?

By request:

What is the difference between 'affect' and 'effect'?

Answer: although both words can be used as verbs and nouns, usually affect is used as a verb and effect as a noun:

The film affected everybody. (= affect, verb)
The film had a powerful effect on everybody. (= effect, noun)

'Affect' indicates feelings or change; 'effect' indicates results or consequences.

Only 'effect' can be followed by the preposition 'on'. 'Affected' is often followed by the preposition 'by':

I was profoundly affected by what I saw.

'Effective' is a very common adjective for describing how something has 'affected' you:

The film had a very effective ending.

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'Effect' is also used as a verb, though it is not common. It means 'to cause' or 'to bring about':

The new management effected some important changes in the first three months.

'Affect' can be used as a noun, but is not commonly used in everyday speech. It refers to the area of psychology concerned with feelings.

Test yourself

Would you use 'effect' or 'affect' in these four sentences?

1. The weather _________ everybody.
2. The ________ of email on writing is widely discussed.
3. She was badly ___________ by the rumours.
4. The news had a good _______ on her.

Writing Tip 5: Avoid Dangling Modifiers

Keep your modifying phrases close to the nouns they modify.

Something is not quite right with this sentence:

Nobody is allowed to dump anything here except city employees.

Can you see the problem? Who can dump? Or who can dump what (or whom)?

The phrase 'except city employees' is a modifying phrase. It modifies 'nobody' - not 'anything' presumably! - so it should remain close to that word, the subject of the sentence:

Nobody, except city employees, is allowed to dump anything here.

Or better:

Only city employees are allowed to dump anything here.

Here the modifying phrase is attached to its noun, and not dangling.

Another example:

By manipulating the lower back, the pain was greatly eased.

This sounds like the pain itself was doing the manipulating. A correct version would be:

By manipulating the lower back, the therapist greatly eased the pain.

Here 'the therapist' is the subject of the sentence. He/she both manipulates the back and eases the pain. The 'By..' phrase is a modifying phrase.

And one final example for you to work out:

The nurse handed the baby to the father in pink pyjamas.

Who is wearing the pink pyjamas?

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For more see http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_dangmod.html

Writing Tip 4: Watch out for Run-on Sentences

Sometimes two sentences are better than one.

It is easy for sentences to run on:

The organisation has declared its intention to expand its internet facilities, however it has few qualified web designers at present.

Staff have signalled a strong interest in further training in this area, for example the seminar held last year proved very popular.

Can you see the problem here? 'However' and 'for example' are used to link the two parts of the statements to make one sentence. However, the two parts need to be separated. Instead of commas, full stops are required:

The organisation has declared its intention to expand its internet facilities. However, it has few qualified web designers at present.

Staff have signalled a strong interest in further training in this area. For example, the seminar held last year proved very popular.

'However' and 'for example' are usually used to start new sentences, even though they link to the sentence before. If you use them in the middle of a sentence, make sure they come after 'and' or 'but'.

Other similar conjunctions to watch out for are:

therefore, then, nevertheless, accordingly, as a result, moreover, even so, rather, indeed

These words frequently start sentences and are usually followed by a comma, as in the two examples above.

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Other linking words - called co-ordinating adverbs - are more commonly used in mid-sentence. Examples include:

even though, although, whereas, while, so

So the first sentence above could be rewritten:

The organisation has declared its intention to expand its internet facilities even though it has few qualified web designers at present.

See the handout on signpost words for more examples.

Note: in the two examples above semi-colons - ; - would work just as well as full stops:

Writing Tip 3: Don't Overload your Sentences!

Some sentences can get rather overloaded!

When writing a first draft it is easy to overload your sentences with too much information.

When editing you have a chance to stand back from what you have written to see if it really communicates what you wish to say. Often you need to unpack some things from a sentence to make it work.

Here are two things to look out for when editing overloaded sentences:

1. Where is the Subject?

The subject of a sentence is the main person or thing performing the main action. It is not necessarily the same as the topic of the sentence. When writing, it is quite easy to lose your sentence subject in the topic:

Following our recent phone conversation of 6 February in which we discussed the possibility of cooperation between our two agencies in restoring an NGO presence in the city of Balan following the end of the civil war there and agreed to look further into ways and means, I am writing to you to propose that we meet in the coming weeks to discuss further the idea of cooperation between our two agencies.

Phew! This is an overloaded sentence. 'I' here is the subject and 'am writing' is the main verb (and purpose) of the sentence. But before getting to the subject the writer has used a long sub-clause (actually more than one!) to introduce the background topic or 'archive' of the letter. As an opening sentence in a letter this is not effective.

Notice how the second half of the sentence runs into problems. The writer is forced to repeat the word 'cooperation'. This is confusing for the reader because the sub-clause has done all the work of the sentence, leaving the main clause with little to do.

How could this be improved?

The writer could try using a shorter introduction clause:

Following our recent phone conversation about possible cooperation in Balan, I am writing.....

Here the subject is closer to the start of the sentence and the 'archive' is kept to a minimum.

Another approach would be to remove the introductory phrase altogether and put the topic or 'archive' into a second sentence:

I am writing to propose that we meet in the coming weeks to discuss possible cooperation between our two agencies in restoring an NGO presence in the city of Balan. As you will recall, we recently discussed this matter in a phone conversation on 6 February and agreed to look further into the ways and means of cooperation.

Here the first sentence has a clearer S V O pattern:

SUBJECT ('I') + MAIN VERBS ('..am writing to propose') and OBJECT ('...the possibility of cooperation..').

These are the key elements of the sentence. The sentence makes both subject and topic clear. The second sentence is the 'archive' as it mentions the phone call. Although the word 'cooperation' is used again in this second sentence, a new concept ('ways and means') is introduced, preparing the reader for the next part of the letter.

2. Chunk Down

The problem of long sentences is often solved simply by chunking down: turn one long sentence into two or more shorter ones. Consider this example:

Working together could have considerable benefits for both our organisations because it would mean that we could share premises and operational costs and communicate better with the government authorities in Balanan, and moreover we could make more effective representations to world governments and the United Nations, who as you know recently identified Balanan as a country in need of long-term reconstruction aid and encouraged NGOs to work together in the post-war recovery period.

This sentence begins well. Its subject ('Working together') and its main verbal unit ('will have considerable benefits for..') are both clear. It runs into problems because it tries to fit too many items into the rest of the sentence. Look at all those linking words

because + and + and + and + moreover + and + who + and

all trying to hold the sentence together.

How could this be solved? Try breaking the long sentence down into smaller ones:

Working together could have considerable benefits for both our organisations. We could, for example, share premises and operational costs. We could also secure better communication with the Balanan government. Moreover, we could make more effective representations to world governments and the United Nations. The latter recently identified Balanan as a country in need of long-term reconstruction aid and encouraged NGOs to work together in the post-war recovery period.

This revised version makes four sentences out of the original one. There is now no sense of the text being overloaded with information. The sentences follow on from each other. Note how 'we' in the second sentence relates back to 'our organisations' in the first; and 'the latter' in the fifth sentence relates back to 'the United Nations' in the fourth.

Also, the repetition of 'we could' helps to hold the paragraph together:

We could.......We could also....Moreover, we could....

Moreover....

Note the work done by the linking word 'Moreover' here. It works better as a sentence opener, followed by a comma, than in the middle of a sentence after 'and'. As well as adding another point to the writer's argument it signals a slight change of direction in the paragraph.

Other 'signpost' words which can be used to begin sentences and signal changes of direction are:

However,.......Furthermore,......In contrast,........First of all,..........Consequently,.........

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Writing Tips:
* Try to get your sentence subject close to the start of the sentence
* Make sure the main verbs of the sentence are clear
* Chunk down if your sentence is becoming too long or complicated
* Limit the number of linking words (and, but, moreover) that you use in one sentence
* Try using some signpost words at the start of sentences
* Don't be afraid of the short sentence. It can work wonders!

Punctuation Resources

. , : ; " ' ! ? ( )
Punctuation marks do a lot of work in writing. They give important messages to the reader about how a sentence should be read.

Learning how to use commas, full stops, colons and semi-colons can make your writing clearer and more effective.

In the course book there is a page on commas. The page on combining information gives examples of how to use colons/semi-colons as well as commas.

Remember that punctuation varies from one language to another - this is especially true of commas - so when you read in English keep an eye on how writers use punctuation.

If you have questions about punctuation in English or you need to see some examples, try:

The Blue Book at http://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/cnt_punc.asp. This is the web site for Jane Straus' The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation. The site has a lot of free material - see the 'Punctuation Rules' if you have a specific question. Also try the quiz.

This is a US-oriented book so will not please all lovers of British English. For a more British notion of 'correct punctuation' see http://www.correctpunctuation.co.uk/.

To find out the names of punctuation marks in English see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation.

Online Game

To test your knowledge of apostrophes and other punctuation marks play this game http://eatsshootsandleaves.com/ESLquiz.html which is based on a best-selling book by Lynne Truss.

Note: 'period' is used in US English, 'full stop' in British English. 'Parenthesis' is widely used in US English, 'brackets' in British English.

There are some US/UK cultural differences in the way punctuation is used, notably regarding commas. In US English, writers are more likely to use the 'final comma' in a list of items:

The writing course included workshop activities, exercises, writing tips, and links to web sites.

In British English the final comma before 'and' is only used if there is a chance that the reader might confuse the last two items in the list. The comma would only be used for clarification.

Extra Resources Online

I have given some additional resources during the course. If you wish to consult these online, please take a note of the following web pages from earlier courses:



On capital letters and hyphens (on the same page)
http://ictywritingcourse.blogspot.com/2005_06_01_ictywritingcourse_archive.html

On writing numbers
http://ictywritingcourse1.blogspot.com/2006/02/writing-numbers-often-when-writing.html

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On letter-writing conventions in English
including some useful starting and ending phrases, try these sites:
http://www.speakspeak.com/html/d2h_resources_letter_writing_phrases.htm

http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/letterwriting/?view=uk

Workshop Four Review: Editing Sentences

The focus of the fourth workshop was on how to improve writing at sentence level. We practised some techniques for editing writing to make it as clear and concise as possible.

Over-writing

Often when we are drafting we over-write. We are trying to find the words and phrases to get our message across; but at the same time we are trying to give our text an overall purpose and structure. We can easily write too much, or repeat information, write overly long sentences, or use unnecessary words.

Editing

When we edit, we have an opportunity to put ourselves in the position of the reader. We can step back from our own words. We can do things to make our writing as clear, precise and reader-friendly as possible before we send it.

In editing, we might:

*cut out unnecessary words and phrases
*sharpen sentences so that the the main subject/verb/object are clear first time
*reduce long or clumsy sentences by breaking them up
*use some short sentences, especially at the end of paragraphs
*make sure the 'signposts' that link sentences together are clear

Fight the Fog

In the workshop we looked at seven 'red flags' of written communication - typical areas where writing can easily become 'foggy':

1. Circumlocutions - long phrases which can usually be replaced by a single word.

2. Redundancies - words and phrases which are just 'padding' and are not doing anything useful.

3. Garbled sentences - mixed or confused messages where the subject/verb/object are not clear on a first reading.

4. Non-parallels - sentences with two or more items, often separated by 'and' or 'but', which are not using the same grammar.

5. Passives - sentences where the subject doing the action is not clear.

6. Nominalisations - nouns which can easily be replaced by verbs.

7. Emphatic Words - words which are used for emphasis but don't add much to the communication.

Learning to spot these 'red flags' helps to make you a better editor and, ultimately, a better writer.

The course manual p. 34 gives a summary of these seven 'problem areas' and advice on how to edit each one. See also the advice (p. 28) about combining old/new information.

Have a go at the exercises if you haven't done so already. Answers are on page 35-6. Have a look also at the writing tips on this web log.

A Note on Paragraphs

It is worth spending a few minutes refreshing your mind about paragraphs. See the handout 'What is a Paragraph?' from today's workshop. For more see this Australian site: http://www.ncistudent.net/StudySkills/WritingSkills/WritingParagraphs.htm

Preview: in the fifth workshop we will look further at how to KISS writing (KISS = Keep It Short and Simple). I will summarise the advice on editing. We will then move on to look at writing proposals and do a workshop activity which involves both re-arranging and editing a text to meet a word limit.

Workshop Three Review: Drafting and Organisation

In this workshop we looked at issues involved in drafting a new text. We read the first draft of a letter from one NGO to another and began the task of re-writing it.

The letter showed a number of communication problems which are common in writing for an unknown audience. It has all the information but it is not reader-friendly. It does not give the reader a clear route map and signposts about the text's topic, purpose and intended outcome. Also, it does not completely fulfil its brief, which is to request a meeting.

To give the reader a better route map, the letter needs to be:

* better organised in terms of paragraphs
* clearer in its purpose - to suggest cooperation and request a meeting
* more aware of its target audience
* more concise in its use of language (too many long words!)

Your homework is to write an improved version of this letter.

Drafting a New Text

When drafting a new text, I suggest the following approach:

1. Visualise an Outline: get an overall 'picture' of your text by planning out the paragraphs you will have. Give a purpose or title to each paragraph. Remember: everything can be changed later, but you need an initial vision to work on. If you are working in a team it is helpful to do this with others. You need a map of the whole text to work with.

2. Choose your Keywords: identify the keywords and pieces of information which can be used in each paragraph. Instead of sentences, note down useful words and phrases. In this letter, for example, the word 'cooperation' might trigger similar words like 'partnership', 'joint', 'working together', 'sharing resources'. These are the words that readers will remember.

3. Sequence: for each paragraph consider how words will be connected and the order in which the reader will get them. Plan the route the reader will take. In the body of the letter, for example, it might be helpful to have three main points to explain the benefits of cooperation: sharing premises and transportation; sharing costs; and communication with the local government. Which order should these three points be presented in? And can they be summarised in another way? For example: logistics, finance, communication.

4. Draft Topic Sentences: write a draft topic sentence for each paragraph. This is the main sentence of the paragraph, the one that holds it together. It usually comes at the beginning of the paragraph, but can also come at the end. The other sentences are supporting sentences. You may have a concluding sentence at the end, but this is more common in academic writing.

5. Connect: when you have a fairly detailed draft and you are happy with the content, consider how the paragraphs will be connected. How will each paragraph begin? Linking words, sometimes called 'signposts', do a lot of work in writing. They give the reader a route map. In this letter, good signposts to begin paragraphs might be:

'Further to....In the light of....Furthermore.....Given.....Therefore....'

Remember, these words can be changed later when you revise and edit. See the handout on signpost-words given in the last workshop.

Talking Points on Drafting

Here are some talking points from this workshop. They could apply to writing in any situation where you do not know the audience very well and/or you need to be tactful about what you say.

How do you start?
It's always useful to refer to a previous conversation, such as the phone call ('Following our phone conversation on 12 February....'), and give a brief phrase to introduce the topic ('the possibility of cooperation in Balanan'). It is also important to identify the purpose of the letter ('to propose a meeting to discuss'). Don't overload the first paragraph with lots of description or context.

How much background should you give?
In this letter, both sides are familiar with the civil war in Balanan so only a brief reference to the situation is needed. It is important to recognise the expertise of the audience and not 'talk down' to them. Rather than describe the situation it is better to give some details about the proposing NGO's decision to resume work in the country and what its aims are. Any background information should be designed to make way for the proposal about cooperation and not just be given for its own sake.-

How do you use potentially sensitive information?
The reference to the Secretary General's speech could be viewed either positively or negatively, depending on the other side's views. In this case, where there is uncertainty, it is better to omit the reference or use it further down the letter as a secondary point. A reference like this is only useful if it backs up the main purpose of the letter - to propose cooperation.

Also in this workshop we looked at:

* Bullet points: how and when to use them.
For more on bullet points see this post from an earlier web log: http://ictywritingcourse.blogspot.com/2005_05_26_ictywritingcourse_archive.html
* Visual layout
See the course book for more details.

Preview: In the fourth workshop we will look at editing. We will do some exercises on how to make your writing more effective at the level of sentences. There will be more writing tips, with 'before' and 'after' examples, on this web log later in the week.

Writing Tip 2: Hit the ITs

The impersonal pronoun 'it' can be useful when referring to a topic like the weather:

It's raining again!

Or when used in a general statement:

It is common practice to use 'it' in sentences like this one.

But too many impersonal 'its' in your writing can make your writing sound......well, impersonal.

In many cases 'it' can easily be removed in favour of a known subject. This usually means that the key verb or verbs in the sentence - the action words- become clearer.

Here are some examples from the first writing task:

Before
It is necessary that the committee presents a full proposal before the end of April.
After
The committee needs to present a full proposal before the end of April.

Before
It will be beneficial for the Organisation to expand and renew its Internet facilities as more and more communication is web-based.
After
The Organisation will benefit from expanded and renewed Internet facilities as more and more communication is web-based.

And some more examples:

Before
In the report it suggests that moderate exercise is better than no exercise at all.
After
The report suggests that moderate exercise is better than no exercise at all.

Before
The group wanted to meet in January, but it didn't happen until May.
After
The group wanted to meet in January, but the conference didn't take place until May.

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Tip: identify a concrete subject, the doer of the action, and put it at the beginning of the sentence. The key verbs should become clearer as a result.

Resources for Improving your Grammar

This post is copied and revised from my ICTY English course weblog at http://ictyenglish.blogspot.com/. I post three grammar tips on this site every week.

Writing is not all about grammar. It's also about understanding situations, relating to people, and knowing what you want to say. However, having a wide repertoire of grammatical techniques can help you to write in a more flexible and effective way.

What is the best way to continue to learn grammar at an advanced level? Here are five short answers:

1. Do some practice on an area of grammar every week. Keep learning! See the exercises listed below
2. Keep your own examples and observe patterns (and exceptions) in the language
3. Know your weaknesses. Focus on particular areas which give you difficulty (eg. articles, relative clauses, gerunds)
4. Learn as much as you can from any feedback you get on your written English
5. Remember that almost every grammatical 'rule' is likely to be breakable in some situations (so don't become slave to rules!).

Books

As English becomes more of a diverse and international language it is less and less possible to point to an authority and say 'that is the correct way!' (or 'that is a mistake!'). But there are generally agreed conventions for British and American English grammar which you need to know, especially when you write.

For reference, I would recommend Advanced Grammar in Use (Second edition 2005) by Martin Hewings (Cambridge University Press, http://www.cambridge.org/elt/catalogue/grammarvocab/grammarinuse/#en-gb, ISBN 0521532914 with answers). This book covers grammatical points in an imaginative way, giving examples and practice exercises on facing pages. Also has useful summaries at the back. If you buy this book for self-study, make sure you get the one with the answer key! The third edition of this book also has a CD Rom. There is an Intermediate level English Grammar in Use by the same author.

For more practice exercises, try Advanced Language Practice (Second edition 2004) by Michael Vince (Macmillan Heinemann, http://www.macmillaneducation.com/ , ISBN 0435241249 with answers).

Online Grammar Resources

My top recommendation is the BBC Learning English site athttp://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/index.shtml. This is an Excellent resource for reading, grammar and vocabulary - updated every day. Always worth a visit.

I would also recommend the OWL (Online Writing Lab) at Purdue University for guidance on grammar and writing: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/index.html.

For your questions on grammar try the Blue Book of Grammar at http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/cnt_gram.asp
or this FAQ site http://www.drgrammar.org/faqs/ and Paul Brian's Common Errors site at thttp://www.wsu.edu:8080/~brians/errors/errors.html

For questions on usage you might try the vast Alt. English Usage at http://alt-usage-english.org/index.shtml. This is searchable and very good for settling disputes over usage, such as: 'Do we say different from, different to or different than?'

You should be able to find answers to most of your questions on these sites. If you can't, email me and I will see if I can find an answer for you!

Practice Online

For quick practice exercises and tests on most areas of grammar see http://www.world-english.org/.

For some useful quizzes on English grammar, donated by teachers, see http://a4esl.org/ (uses mostly Java and Flash). Also see the bilingual quizzes here.

I would also strongly recommend the pages on tenses at Englishpage.com. All the tenses are explained clearly and there are online practice exercises for each one. See http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/verbtenseintro.html.

A teacher, David Tillyer, has produced a useful summary of a tricky area - gerunds and infinitives - at http://www.geocities.com/gwyni_99/gerinfless.html. He also offers a list of verbs and practice tests.

For articles, see my own site at http://articlespace.blog-o-matic.com/.

Online Resources 3: Writing and Editing

Although your writing is not something you can change overnight, you can make a little bit of progress every day.

There are useful online resources which can help you to write more clearly and effectively and to develop sharper skills as an editor. Here are my six top recommendations:


1. The European Union 'Fight the Fog' campaign for clear writing at http://europa.eu.int/comm/translation/en/ftfog/index.htm. This is a very engaging site with a 12-page 'How to Write Clearly' booklet and 'Teach Yourself Fog-fighting' exercises similar to those used on my course. There's also humour here, and advice on how to fight 'Eurobabble'. Highly recommended.

2. The UK Plain English Campaign at http://www.plainenglish.co.uk/. This is an independent pressure group promoting the use of clear written English in government, law and business. Go to 'Free Guides' for PDF versions of their useful and practical writing booklets, including 'How to Write Plain English'.

3. Sherry Roberts business writing seminar at http://www.editorialservice.com/11ways.html gives 11 tips for effective writing. Simple and effective.

4. The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University, USA, has excellent pages on writing at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/index.html. Advice on many topics including memos, reports and letters. Useful and easy to read. The home page links to resources on punctuation, grammar and spelling. This is probably the biggest and longest running OWL on the web.

5. The Editorial Eye at http://eeicom.com/eye/eyeindex.html is widely used by professional editors. It has a searchable database of articles on editing and language. It's not a list of practical tips, but you may find answers to your questions here.

6. If you are a legal professional you may find Bryan Garner's Legal Writing in Plain English at http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/garner/ useful. This is the free online version of his book, but there are many tips and exercises here on how to edit your legal writing to make it more reader-friendly.

Also on the language of law, you may like to read about the work of Clarity, a worldwide group of lawyers whose aim is the use of good, clear language by the legal profession. http://www.adler.demon.co.uk/clarity/home/about.htm

If you come across any useful writing web sites, please let me know!

Where did Writing Begin?

Both Egyptian and Sumerian civilisations started using writing about 3,000 years B.C.

The Sumerians used a kind of picture writing called cuneiform on clay and stone tablets. The Egyptians used another form of picture writing, heiroglyphs, on papyrus.

Early writing had many functions. Although its main use was to record things, just like some memos today, it was also used to tell popular stories, make religious offerings, and commemorate the dead.

If you visit the Louvre Museum in Paris, have a look at the Sumerian art of Mesopotamia. Most of the sculptures there have pieces of writing on them. Also, most Egyptian art is adorned with writing of some kind.

In Sumerian and Egyptian times less than 1% of people knew how to write.

Writing Tip 1: Give your Reader some Signposts

When writing, give your reader some direction.

You might think that short sentences are more effective because they are easier to read. But in practice lots of short sentences can be just as difficult to follow as lots of long ones. The best approach is to combine long and short sentences.

And give your reader some direction.

Compare these two opening paragraphs of the memo from workshop two:

The SACT met recently. It is planning to propose training courses on web design. The courses will be offered to all staff. The company has recently decided to enhance its internet and intranet facilities. The courses will include learning html and web design applications. They will not include programming. The committee is planning to make a budget submission. The submission will be at the end of the year. Your feedback is needed. Your feedback will help the committee in making a successful submission. Feedback is welcome any time before 15 November.

Following a recent meeting, the SACT is planning to propose training courses on web design in response to the company's recent decision to enhance its internet and intranet facilities. These courses will be offered to all staff. They will include learning html and web design applications but will not include programming. The committee is planning to make a budget submission at the end of the year and needs your feedback on the proposed training in order to make the submission as successful as possible. Your feedback is welcome any time before 15 November.

The first paragraph has eleven sentences. All of them are short and have only one clause. But is it easy to read? Is it reader-friendly?

The second paragraph has five sentences of different lengths and using different types of clauses. It has the same information, but instead of reading like a list the items are combined.

The words in green link together pieces of information. They also help to link each sentence to the one just before it. These words direct the reader through the text. They are signpost words.

The second paragraph is more effective than the first because it combines long, medium and short sentences. Sentence one has three pieces of information. Sentence two, by contrast, has only one. It is this variety in length that makes the writing more effective.

Look again at the sentences in paragraph two. It has this pattern:

LONG....SHORT.....MEDIUM......LONG......SHORT

The two short sentences give important information to the reader, but they only work in combination with the two longer sentences (giving three pieces of information each) and the medium-sized sentence (two pieces of information).The phrase 'the proposed training' is added to link and repeat the key words of the memo - proposal and training.

Writing Tips:
* Combine long, medium and short sentences in a single paragraph.
* Try putting short sentences at the beginning, in the middle or at the end.
* Make sure the short sentences communicate important information.
* Focus on the 'signpost' words that link sentences together
* Deadlines and key dates are effective at the end of the first paragraph of a memo.
* Repeat the keywords of a memo several times (including subject line).

It is helpful to know some of the basic sentence patterns in English. See this site for some examples: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_sentp.html

Workshop Two Review

Summary of Workshop Two: Organisation and Planning

In this workshop we looked at different ways of planning information in a memo. It is important to plan at the global level - to see the whole - as well as at the level of words and sentences.

We looked at the importance of having some initial structure, such as the pyramid model, but also of the need to adapt structures in practice according to the specific situation. The memo writing exercise stressed the importance of selecting and combining pieces of information. The sequencing of information matters. The use of effective subject lines, keywords and the balance between informing and motivating language was also discussed.

Planning Writing

If a situation is well known and we have used similar communication before, we usually write quickly and have few problems with content and language. This is the case with short request memos and emails that we write every day. Our writing in these situations becomes so predictable and rehearsed that we almost do not think about it.

But what about writing in an unfamiliar situation involving new information? Before actually writing anything new, we usually have to do some planning. This may involve a series of activities such as

selecting
prioritising
combining
grouping
sequencing

pieces of information in order to get a sense of the whole text before we write a single sentence.

In order to get this 'sense of the whole', we need to be clear about the writing situation we are in. It is often helpful to do some get-it-in-one planning. Before writing anything new, try to complete the four missing blanks in this sentence:

'This memo/letter to _______________(audience) is to ______________ (purpose) about ___________________ (topic) so that ___________________ (outcome or
'uptake').'

Doing this can help you to focus on the overall situation and the type of communication required. This is often better than struggling to think of a first line.

Thinking Global: Three Types of Planning

i. Bullet planning: make a short and concise plan of the whole text in key words and phrases. Try to see in advance the sections of the whole text, even if the final product will not have headings. Memos, for example, often work on the basis of three sections - 'big news', supporting details, action request - and reports may have six or more sections - summary, introduction, background, findings, evaluation, conclusions/recommendations. This kind of planning helps you to identify the essential words (eg 'feedback' in the web training memo) which you will use in the subject line, the first paragraph and probably again at the end of the text.

ii. Strategy planning: make a plan of the key words and phrases in the text in the order in which you want readers to get them. Identify a strategy for the communication, how one idea leads to another. As writing is a visual as much as a mental activity, the order in which readers get information does matter. See the two examples in the manual, pp. 18-19. The arrows indicate the 'flow' of information in each text.

iii. Visual Planning: make a plan of your whole text as a diagram or using boxes/circles to get a sense of the whole. This may be 'brainstorming' or more linear planning. Working in this visual way frees you from the urge to write sentences and encourages you instead to think in terms of key words and ideas. This is particularly useful if you have a lot of information to organise or a lot of data which needs to be summarised or selected.

Remember that the visual impact of a whole text does matter (see p. 21 in the manual) so it can help if you plan in a visual way too. This approach may identify, for example, places where bullet points might be effective in a text.

Spending Time on Planning

Spending quality time on planning what you write can make all the difference! It can help you to:
* get a sense of 'the whole'
* focus on the audience, purpose, topic and intended outcome
* organise and group together the key ideas, filtering out unnecessary items
* identify the essential or 'signature' words for the whole text
* plan the visual layout
* devise a strategy for the text

Selecting Information: Some Tips

In the workshop the memo involved selecting a small number of items from a long random list. It would be easy to over-load the memo with too many details. What should you look for when selecting information?

1. Look for items that you can combine because they have a smilar effect or meaning. Then choose the best one or mix them together. Look for words that will have the strongest impact.

2. Look for threes. Three points in a paragraph are easy for readers to handle whereas more than three can lead to overload or require extra explanation.

3. Look for ways of connecting items together. An example is to connect by time. In the web training memo, for example, you could link three points together by moving from past to present to future:

Past: one day seminar last year was very popular
Present: company has asked all departments to create web pages but few staff are trained and current computer training does not meet the need
Future: more and more communication will be web-based and the training will be good career development for staff

4. Look for ways of linking the company context and the individual context. This does not have to be an explicit link. In the web training memo, for example, you could use separate sentences to implicitly link the context of the company and the context of the individual staff member.

The organisation has declared its intention to expand its internet and intranet facilities in the coming year. However, at the current time there are very few web designers in the organisation and many staff listed 'web design' as a training need in the last appraisal.

The order of sentences here links company policy and staff needs with the word 'However' doing the work. The link suggests that training is needed but without explicitly saying so.

5. Look for ways of including some statitstical information, but don't overdo it! In the web training memo, for example, the fact that '60 people applied for 10 places' for a seminar is a persuasive fact. Remember that there are different ways of presenting a fact: 'a seminar held last year received six times more applications than places available' is just as effective.

6. Look out for 'hot' political information and phrase carefully or tuck away in the memo. In this workshop's memo, the fact that '20% of last year's training budget was unspent' is a 'hot' fact. It could either work for or against the Committee's aims. This fact could be 'tucked away' in the memo, perhaps using brackets, so that it appears less prominent. Or it could be rephrased so that it is implied, not stated:

The Committee is keen to see that XYZ staff benefit from the full training budget next year. Your feedback on this proposal is therefore highly valued and will help us to make a strong proposal in time for the next budget cycle.

Requests

In the workshop we also looked at various ways of making requests in memos. Requests are better when they are clear, specific, polite and backed up by good reasons.

Preview: in the third workshop we will move on to letter writing and consider further issues of planning and organisation. The emphasis will be more on paragraphs and sentences. We will look at a writing situation involving communication between two NGOs. We will look at how to revise texts effectively and begin some exercises on editing. We will also look at bullet points - how to use them, when to use them, and when to avoid them!

Getting Started

Ever get writer's block?

Everyone gets stuck as a writer at some point. Even Shakespeare must have occasionally thought 'What next?' But getting started on a new text is one of the most common sticking points for everyone.

How can you get yourself unstuck? Here are some suggestions for those moments when you are facing a blank sheet of paper or an empty screen:


1. Don't start with sentence number one!
You can waste a lot of time trying to think of a good opening sentence or a subject line. Don't! You may be lucky and find the first sentence of your letter or memo popping into your head as soon as you start writing. But this is unlikely, even on a good day. It is best to free your mind from the need to write sentences, especially the first one.

2. Think Keywords
Instead of writing sentences, write down the keywords that must be included in the communication. These may be content words ('feedback', 'web-based training') or they may be verbs ('propose', 'request', 'invite') or they may even be facts or statistics. If you have a brief from a supervisor, notes from a meeting or even an earlier memo, identify the keywords from these texts. Go from reading to writing.

3. See the Whole
Take a visual outline (like the inverted pyramid model) and plan what each section of the text will do in this situation. Use your keywords. Try to visualise your text in three or four sections. Think about how the text will unfold, eg. 'big news' > supporting details and background > action request. Think about the uptake of the text - what is it leading to? what do you hope to achieve? what is going to happen next? You may have more than three or four paragraphs when you actually write the text; but your outline is a start. Be playful. Use diagrams and pictures if they help you. Consulting with someone else may also focus your mind on the essentials.

4. Add details
Expand your outline by adding supporting details that readers will need. Picture your readers, anticipate their questions. Again, focus on words and not sentences. You may realise here that one section of your text needs two paragraphs rather then one, or that a piece of information needs to be moved down or up the text. You may also realise that you need to do some research or you need to consult a colleague. Your keywords may change. You may find that a certain 'hot' piece of information needs to be tucked away in the text, made less important, or even deleted. Keep your thinking fluid. Remember: everything you write at this stage can be changed. Don't imagine yourself writing in an exam room!

5. Focus each Paragraph
Decide now how many paragraphs you are going to use for your first draft. Write one 'topic statement' for each paragraph. This is a summary of the paragraph - what it is about and its purpose. This statement can be a long phrase, connecting the keywords, or - if you are lucky - a full sentence.

6. Go on - Write a Sentence!
Now you should be ready to try some sentences. At this stage, keep them short and to the point. You can connect sentences together when you revise. Imagine that you are talking to your reader. Free write, without worrying too much about the grammar and spelling. You can improve these later. Don't feel that you have to write sentence number one first. You might find it easier to write the last sentence first. Often a good opening sentence only comes after we have done a lot of thinking.

Writing is Re-writing

Get something down on paper, have a short break, and then come back to it. Write to re-write. The less anxiety you feel about getting started, the better your writing will be. Once you have made a start it will be easier. If you are working closely with a colleague, it helps for one person to do a rough draft and then you consult together on how to improve it.

It is also a good idea when you write to have earlier texts (from the archive, or just good examples) in front of you when you write.

*If English is your second or third language, you may find it easier to do early drafting in your own language and then translate the keywords. However, translating a whole text into English is much more difficult. Writing well in English - or any language - means learning to think in the language, not translate. That is why it is useful to re-use phrases that you know have already been successful, and then build on them.

*Writing prompts can also be useful to get your started. See the end of the course book for some examples. Better: keep effective memos and letters that you receive and borrow words and phrases from them. Borrowing is not copying - everybody does it!

Workshop One: Review

Inverted Pyramid, Louvre Carrousel, Paris

Summary of Workshop One: Memos


Our first session focused on common communication problems in workplace writing. We identified some of the typical problems encountered in reading memos and similar texts, including:

Excessive Length
Poor structure and organisation
Repetition
Elaborate language and jargon
Unclear purpose
Too many irrelevant details
Overloaded paragraphs
Information presented as a list
Cold or unfriendly tone
Not enough background context
Too much background context

During the course we will be looking at how we can improve our writing in order to avoid these communication problems. The course is about how everyday writing can be made more:

clear
concise
organised
reader-friendly
flexible

The emphasis of the course is on writing situations. Whenever we write, however long the text, we need to consider four main factors in the communication:

Content: what is to be communicated?
Purpose: what is the communication for?
Audience: who is the communication aimed at?
Outcome: what should happen as a result of the communication?

When you are writing a new text or you have a lot of information to communicate, it is worth spending a few minutes on these questions about the writing situation.

Writing Memos: Mr Chatty, Mr Blunt and Mr Messy

In the workshop we compared three administration memos written in response to the same brief. The three memos all take a different approach. Here is my evaluation of the three memos:

John 1 takes an informal and casual approach to the task set by Anne. He uses nearly all the information from Anne's email, even lifting whole phrases from it, but he does not edit the language for the audience or the situation.

The 'big news' (the date) does not appear until the end of his long memo. He uses bold and underlining to draw attention to the date - techniques discouraged in the body of memos, at least in UN writing. The end of his memo has a weak action statement ('When you get time...') which is hardly designed to motivate the reader. The references to people's first names ('Ingrid', 'Jackie') and the memo's opening phrase ('As most of you are aware...') are too chatty and could exclude colleagues.

John 1 has not realised that his audience is 'all staff in HR', not just a small group known to him. However, he does do what Anne asked regarding the background of the form's introduction and he does give a good summary of the changes in paragraph 2.

John 2 takes a more concise and straightforward approach. The memo gets straight to the point and the 'big news' is given in the first paragraph. His memo is shorter than John 1's and has numbered paragraphs. He also indicates at the start who the memo is from and the attachment.

The purpose of the memo and the action statement (paragraph 3) are both clear. John 2's subject line is also better then John 1's and he makes some attempt to thank the reader at the end. However, John 2 has omitted some of the information requested by Anne. His language is really too concise, even blunt.

He also uses some rather over-formal language ('henceforth', 'It will be noted..') and at one point a piece of jargon ('modern-day personnel acquisition practice') which could easily have been put in simpler English ('modern-day recruitment'). The date is written correctly according to UN practice: 1 December 2001.

John 3 has included most of the information requested by Anne, but has made little attempt to edit and organise it. There are too many paragraphs and the memo reads like a list. A number of points (eg. 4 and 5) could be combined.

The shape of the memo is uneven, with paragraph 6 much longer than all the others. The subject line includes an unnecessary abbreviation. The memo ends in an abrupt way which is not motivating for readers. John 3, unlike the other two writers, does give feedback details (paragraph 6) but in the wrong place. The 'Regards..' at the end is not needed in a formal memo.

Effective Memo Writing

We looked at an example of a more effective memo to illustrate some of the features of good memo writing. See the handout and the course book pages 8-11 for details.

Although every writing situation is different, most effective memos will include some or all of the following features:

* a clear and concise subject line
* the key information or 'big news' in the first paragraph
* key words, especially words used in the subject line, in the first paragraph
* numbered or at least clearly separated paragraphs
* short paragraphs of between 2-5 sentences in length
* a clear and brief indication of the background or context ('archive statement')
* a clear indication of the purpose of the memo
* supporting paragraphs which are relevant to the topic and not overloaded with too much information or bullet points
* requests for action made clearly but politely
* feedback details (if relevant)
* a positive or forward-looking tone at the end
* sender/receiver/attachment details

Think Pyramid

When planning a memo it is useful to use the inverted pyramid structure as shown in the course book on page 10. This can help you to organise your thoughts and identify the priority information before you start writing sentences. It also helps you to develop a paragraph structure.

When writing an important new text it is often not a good idea to start with the first sentence or the subject line. Instead, plan the keywords of the text using a visual plan. More of this in workshop two.

Pages 57-62 in the course book give some useful phrases for opening and closing memos and for making requests.

The second workshop will focus on planning and organising information in memos, how to make requests, and how to combine pieces of information.

The Email Revolution

Email is transforming the way we use writing.

E-mail technology makes written communication more like everyday conversation. It is rapid, interactive and informal. Email has fewer conventions than traditional writing and consequently there is more scope for personal style.

Connection to the web and other document sources allows us to copy/paste material into emails with ease. We can use colour, emoticons, graphics, send photos. Using email has become a regular feature of our lives. Indeed, can we now imagine written communication without it?

However, this revolution is not without its problems. The speed and informality of email can sometimes work against effective communication in the workplace. Do you recognise any of these scenarios?

* An email message is forwarded to you or you are included c.c. You have no idea why you have received it.
* An email message is sent with the single abbreviation 'FYI' at the top and a long piece of text pasted from another message.
* An email message is sent to you but it is so unclear that you have to write back immediately asking for clarification.
* An email message is sent with the message thread (archive) removed. You have no idea of the background.
* After a few days' leave you return to an inbox with 300 emails. You delete over half without reading them.

Email can make writing imprecise, casual and unstructured. It can make language sloppy and inaccurate. It encourages too many abbreviations. It leads to message overload. The interactive nature of email means that many messages are sent unchecked. Although most email programmes have spellcheck facilities, many people never use them.

More seriously, email can be the death of common courtesy. 'Please' becomes 'pls' and then disappears altogether. It can encourage management styles that are abrupt or evasive. Sending bad news in a quick email on a Friday afternoon or giving sharp commands by email are a common use of the medium by those who use writing to avoid meeting colleagues face to face.

SEND

And then there is the SEND button. Have you ever pressed 'send' and then noticed a major mistake in your message? Have you ever pressed 'send' and then had an attack of 'message regret' (I wish I had never sent that email!)? Maybe you have even sent an email and then had to phone the recipients to explain your message. If you have, you are certainly not alone!

E-mail makes writing easier and quicker. But it may hinder effective communication in work and business, especially when a writer is conveying information or making a request to more than one person. The formal clarity of the memo and the letter can easily be lost in a flood of emails.

Then there are the familiar problems arising from quickfire technology: message overload (I have had 200 messages today and it's only 11am!), unnecessary forwarding of messages (Why have I received this message along with 100 other people?) and of course the dreaded spam.

Emails and Memos

It is worth separating these as two types of writing.

Emails are informal, person-to-person, interactive, unstructured and temporary.

Memos are formal, organisational, information-based, structured and archived.

Use emails for short requests and for communication with people you know or colleagues in a close-knit team. Use memos for any communication that may be kept or passed on to others, following the advice and examples given in this course. Even though most memos are sent electronically, they should not look like casual emails. A memo has to be remembered.

Is Numbering Necessary?

The UN Correspondence Manual recommends numbering of paragraphs in all memos which have more than one substantial piece of information. The numbering makes later reference easier and also encourages writers to draft their memos with more structure.

Short requests and emails need not be numbered.

The problems arise when informal emails are used to convey information which should really be in a formal memo. Making a distinction between emails and memos as types of writing helps to reduce this problem.

Even if you do not number paragraphs, it is helpful when drafting to make sure that each paragraph has a specific function in the text.

Email Etiquette

Even when using email between colleagues or members of a team, you should follow some etiquette. You never know at work when a message may be kept or passed on to someone else. Indeed, some companies have even introduced email etiquette policies in order to prevent misuse and abuse.

Of course, etiquette only works if everyone follows it. The following sites on e-mail etiquette may give you some ideas to discuss with colleagues:

http://www.emailreplies.com/ 32 tips for e-mail etiquette

http://www.dynamoo.com/technical/etiquette.htm Do's and Don'ts of emailing

Two more interesting articles about e-mail:

*Writing at work - is e-mail destroying business writing?http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4059077.stm

*Is email befuddling your brain? Try this quiz: http://www.guardian.co.uk/quiz/questions/0,5961,1466662,00.html

P.S. Don't Write!

Sometimes it is better not to write but to pick up the phone or talk in person. Emailing can be like having a conversation (indeed, this is how Google have marketed their gmail programme). But it is not always the best way to share ideas or to plan a document in a team. Written communication in a team is often more effective after a face-to-face meeting in which everyone has had a say. Also, when writing a memo, remember that consulting with others is often a crucial part of the planning stage.

Online Resources 2: Dictionaries

If you need to look up a word, why not use an online dictionary? There are now several free online dictionaries on the web. Most of them offer additional resources on language such as 'a word a day' or bilingual dictionaries.

Some online dictionaries can also help you to expand your vocabulary, not just check the meanings or spellings of words.

I reviewed online dictionaries recently and tested them with a list of words including infighting, tsunami, blogosphere and hello. Here is my top 5 with brief comments. Let me know your opinions!

1. Cambridge Dictionaries Online http://dictionary.cambridge.org/. Searches the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Also has options for English/French and French/English. Nice additional feature is the 'Top 20' most searched words, updated every month.

2. Ask Oxford http://www.askoxford.com/?view=uk Searches the Oxford Compact English Dictionary. Has UK or US viewing options. Lots of additional features including 'Commonly Misspelled Words'and 'New Words in English'. Note: The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary is the dictionary recommended by the United Nations.

3. Word Reference http://www.wordreference.com/ Has English dictionary, but also English to French, Spanish and Italian.

4. Merriam Webster Online http://www.m-w.com/ The best dictionary for US English. Also has an online thesaurus and a kids' dictionary.

5. Dictionary Reference (meta search) http://dictionary.reference.com/ Searches a number of online resources and displays multiple entries. Also has audio file prounciation for words.

Other online dictionaries you may find useful:

* http://acronymfinder.com/ Your first stop on the web for abbreviations eg. UNCTAD, PDF, ICTY.

* http://www.visualthesaurus.com/ A new approach to word-finding. Search for a word and it produces a visual map of that word and related words. At the moment free only for a trial period.

* http://www.infovisual.info/ Another new concept. A visual dictionary in topic areas - plants, animals, the human body and transport.

* http://dictionary.law.com/ A large dictionary of legal terms in English covering both US and British systems.

* http://www.ircpolitics.org/glossary.html A glossary of political terms used in US and British English.

* http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html A multilingual dictionary of medical and health-related terms. Translations are available into nine European languages. The site is sponsored by the European Commission.

* http://euabc.com/ Another EU-sponsored site. A multi-lingual (ten languages!) dictionary of terms used in the European Union debate and EU documents, including the new Constitution.